Environment vs Economic Impact Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Environment vs Economic Impact - Research Paper Example Environmental Economics is concerned with the theoretical and empirical studies of the economic effects of environmental policies all over the globe and it suggests measure of mitigation of the effects. There are many economic activities as carried out by different people in the world. The range and type of the activities are heavily dependent on the level of development of the communities in question. For example, during the ancient times, African communities were known to carry out economic activities such as trade, keeping of livestock and cultivation of land among others while at the same time the western countries were involved in the industrialization processes as the main economic activity. The economic activities may harm the environment if not well checked. Some economic activities are very detrimental to an extent that governments throughout the world have banned them. Almost all economic activities carried out have an detrimental effect to the environment and therefore it is crucial to manage the activities to make sure that we don’t continuously erode the environment and also we should severally conserve the environment to make sure that a good environment is always available for the humankind (Jeroen 43). Sustainable development occurs only when the three pillars of development namely social, political and economic are balanced. Environmental stability is part of the social pillar. Current situation of the Environment vs. economic impacts Increases economic growth in the world has led to increased pollution in the world which can be categorized into Water pollution, Air pollution, Solid waste pollution, Noise pollution and Land or Soil pollution. The increasing industrialization in the world has led to the production of heavy machineries, motor vehicles and other motorized locomotive machines such as airplanes, trains, cranes and ships among others. The increased mechanization has led to the swiftness through which goods have been moved from one place to the other and people have been able to move at a very fast pace from one region to the other. This fast movement has enhanced connection of different region and this has facilitated more trade and therefore more economic growth in nations. However, there has been consistent air pollution which contaminates the air in the immediate environment of human beings. Research has shown that increased CO2 emission leads the depletion of the ozone layer. Depletion of the ozone layer tends to allow the dangerous sun rays to hit the earth and in turn leads to cancers and skin diseases. The motorists also make a lot of noise leading to noise pollution which leads to poor hearing capabilities. Companies involved in the production of the machineries and industrial goods are also involved in emission of effluents which in turn lead to water pollution. Water pollution affect the population using the water in a multiple of ways; for instance livestock drinking the contaminated water die , human beings taking the water will also die and most importantly the plants which take up the water will get contaminated (Harris 43). The contaminated water also reduces the nutrients available for plant uptake through displacements of ions in the soils and thus the plants may face eventual drying and death. The contaminated water effluents are also taken up by human beings in form of vegetables especially those grown in the urban areas. Trash and garbage is a commonly seen scene in most urban regions in the world. It is a major

The effect of usury on our lives Research Paper

The effect of usury on our lives - Research Paper Example The old way was an endeavor to shield the poor and less fortunate from exploitation, but the current American economic system charges higher interests to the poor (Long, 1996). Despite the fact that usury-based economic systems are a common practice by all banks in the world today, people should resist it because of its enormous disadvantages to the society. Different schools of thought have been advanced towards the concept of usury. The traditional view perceives usury has a practice of seeking a payment for a loan advanced to another individual. This definition was development at the scholarly works of Aristotle and was embraced by other people of the times. The concept advancement by Aristotle was that money was barren; the medieval schoolmen accepted this view. Later on, changes stared emerging on the definition (Persky, 2007). The modern view of usury relates to charging of unethical interest that is exploitative to the borrower. However, some faiths have continued to uphold th e concept of charging any form of interest as an act of usury. The banks have developed due to the demand to satisfy the market needs, laws that regulate their activities have been developed. It is an act of usury for a bank or any other financial lending institution or a person to charge more than the set percentages. In my view usury is a relative concept that relates to interest charged on loans, if the interest is unreasonable to the poor in the society and does not reflect the needs in the society that is tantamount to usury (Lewison, 1999). Usury based economy relates to the charging of favorable interests. The modern view started taking its shape around 1571 when Elizabeth I allowed an interest of 10% to be charged, this aspect led to enactment of some ethics to safeguard the interests of the loanees. At the initial stages, a lot of resistance was encountered since the interest was seen as a way of exploiting people (Steel, 1993). To further upgrade usury, came reforms that f acilitated the enactment of ethics. Coincidentally, the activity led to an increase in the prices and consequently economies started growing. A lot of productivity and prosperity was evident in the process. In 1854, the usury laws were reformed further allowing the justice system to prosecute those that were charging exorbitant interests. The laws have continued to change in order to take care of the borrowers, as it stands the Consumer Credit act protects the borrowers against any form of modern usury (Steel, 1993). Human needs are many and unsatiable, in an effort to control the economy of the world by the giant economies they use their financial muscle to benefit themselves more. People in all societies need to invest their money in one way or another in order to live a secure and decent life. Money is the backbone of anyone’s life; however, people have very limited options to choose where to invest their money. Banks are the only winning side from this unequal equation (M ews & Ibrahim, 2007). They take people’s money to make as much profit as they can for the sake of themselves and the rich people. On the other hand, poor and middle class people will find themselves drowning in debt day after day. To simplify this lets take an average college graduate student as an example. If he wanted to satisfy the basic need of his life on his won, from getting married to finding a place to live, he will surely be in debt for at least 30 coming

Impact of Trade on East Asia and South Asia Essay Example for Free

Impact of Trade on East Asia and South Asia Essay East Asia and South Asia was similar in that it promoted economic development in both regions and transformed port cities of both regions into cosmopolitan centers, but differed in that it helped with the establishment of Buddhism in China while it helped with the establishment of Islam in India. The impact of trade on East Asia and South Asia was similar in that it promoted economic development in both regions. In East Asia, the Grand Canal, a series of connected waterways, linked together north and south China. As northern and southern China traded rice and other food crops, the larger economy of China improved and grew. In South Asia, northern and southern India traded spices, metals, and specialized crops that were not available throughout India. As northern and southern India traded, the south prospered and experienced a surge in economic development. Trade promoted economic development in both East Asia and South Asia because they both traded within their region and outside of it, obtaining profit and wealth, along with goods. The impact of trade on East Asia and South Asia was similar in that it transformed port cities of both regions into cosmopolitan centers. As China traded, Arab, Persian, and Malay merchants settled within its region. The merchants settled in port cities, such as Guangzhou and Quanzhou, which turned into cosmopolitan centers. As India traded, Muslim, Jewish, and other merchants began to dwell within the subcontinent. The brokers became residents at port cities, such as Calicut, which developed into cosmopolitan societies. Trade transformed port cities in both East Asia and South Asia into cosmopolitan centers because they both had thriving commercial centers where merchants moved to in search of business opportunities. The impact of trade on East Asia and South Asia differed in that it helped with the establishment of Buddhism in China while it helped with the establishment of Islam in India. Buddhism diffused into China along trade routes. Merchants set up Buddhist communities in China, such as Dunhuang, helping it gain a foothold in society. Islam spread into India as merchants traded and settled in the region. As they settled in cities, such as Cambay, they spread Islam into Indian society. Trade helped with the establishment of Buddhism in China, but helped with Islam in India because Muslim merchants traveled to South Asia due to its trade centers and relative proximity, while Buddhist merchants traveled to East Asia in search of trade opportunities outside of India. From 600 to 1450 CE, the influence of trade on East Asia and South Asia was similar in that it encouraged economic growth in both areas and helped with the development of port cities into cosmopolitan centers in both regions, but differed in that it promoted the establishment of Buddhism in China while it promoted the establishment of Islam in India.

Theories of Authority and Obedience

Theories of Authority and Obedience Ioannis Sakarellos Obedience has always been ubiquitous while while at the same time was easily overlooked. According to Milgram, obedience can be defined as â€Å"the psychological mechanism that links individual action to political purpose. It is the dispositional cement that binds men to systems of authority† (1). This paper claims that ordinary people who have a strong personal moral code tend to blindly follow orders given by an authoritarian figure when they become part of a structured organization governed by authority. This action of blindly following orders to do things that they personally know are wrong and can cause horrible results is referred by Zimbardo as â€Å"turning evil† (The Lucifer effect). What is meant by blindly following orders is that people fail to think of the consequences of the actions that they have been ordered to undertake. Many researchers have come to the conclusion that it is not the mentally ill or the ones with behavior problems who end up doing the most harmful things but rather the normal people. The key concept of the paper is that ordinary people by â€Å"simply doing their job† with a sense of obligation towards an authoritarian figure can cause immoral and unethical circumstances to arise (Milgram 6). The main source to be analyzed will be Milgram’s book Obedience to Authority, which examines his teachers and learners experiment. The end result of the experiment is that average people did â€Å"become agents in a terrible destructive process† (6). However, the process by which people become evil is of equal importance. Moreover, the second source of the paper is Zimbardo’s book, The Lucifer Effect, which further examines the main concept of the research through real-life examples. It mainly focuses on how good people can turn evil by obeying someone’s orders under certain situations. Directly connected with this outcome is the term â€Å"Banality of evil†, which comes from Arendt’s book Eichmann in Jerusalem (xiv). This term means that evil things occur when ordinary people follow orders and feel that the evil things they are doing are normal. In this paper, both experimental and real life situations are examined in order to illustrate the power that authority has on individuals who have normal codes of morality and behavior, and how they will perform ruthless acts they wouldn’t have done otherwise. Milgram states that our own nature is the root of being obedient since â€Å"we are born with the potential for obedience.† This inborn structure, along with the influences each person has from society, â€Å"produce the obedient man† (125). He states, the reason ordinary people blindly follow orders given from an authoritarian figure lies in the changes that occur in people’s behavior when from acting individually they enter a hierarchically coordinated organization. He concludes that the conscience an individual has about moral and ethical standards, and what that person thinks is right or wrong, is not further followed with the orders given from an authoritarian figure. Individuals will act blindly without thinking whether the actions they have to undertake conform with their personal values. When ordinary people enter a hierarchical structure system, they lose their personal judgment of each order given from someone who is higher in the hierarchical ladder. T herefore, the nature of the action ordered is not filtered by the person’s own belief, and as a result, heinous consequences might occur. Milgram’s teachers and learners experiment is one characteristic situation of blind obedience that occurs due to the change in people’s behavior when moving from the individual function to the organization function. â€Å"The main question is how far the participant will comply with the experimenter’s instructions before refusing to carry out the actions required of him† (Milgram 3). Before mentioning the results of the experiment and how the participants who had ordinary behavior managed to turn evil by obeying the experimenter and conducting immoral and unethical actions, I want to highlight one of the keystones in this research; Milgram’s agentic state. The agentic state, or state of agency, is â€Å"the condition a person is in when he sees himself as an agent for carrying out another person’s wishes† (Milgram 133). As individuals enter an authoritarian system which is hierarchically organized and moves away from being autonomous, they fail to follow their own beliefs and perceptions and they turn into an agent who follows blindly and uncritically the orders given from above. Most importantly, when the person is in the agentic state he â€Å"no longer views himself as responsible for his own actions but defines himself as an instrument for carrying out the wishes of others† (Milgram 134). People, by being in the agentic state, are becoming blindly obedient to the authority figure. Especially, if the actions ordered are unethical and immoral, as it is in the teachers and learners experiment, people can become evil and cause severe pain for example, by giving electric shocks to the learners. In order to examine the consequences of the agentic state on participants, the most vital factors that lead the subjects in this state and transform them into blind obedient servants, need to be mentioned first. One of the factors is the perception of authority. According to Milgram, authority can be defined as â€Å"the person who is perceived to be in a position of social control within a given situation† (138). Milgram declares that what matters is how the individual perceives authority in a social structure. Specifically, the experimenter and the set-up of the situation, which seems like a scientific laboratory, create authority’s appearance, which is what influences the participants. Two other main factors he suggests are the entry into the Authority System and the Overarching Ideology. In order for a person to fully become an agent who only follows orders, he or she has to become part of the authority system. The entry into the laboratory serves the role of enteri ng into the authority system. It is very important that the participants enter voluntarily since in that way, a sense of commitment and obligation towards authority is created. Regarding the overarching ideology, â€Å"science and its acceptance as a legitimate social enterprise provides the overarching ideological justification for the experiment† (Milgram 142). The ideological justification of the experiment’s purpose is what drives participants to obtain willing obedience, perceiving their behavior as helping a desirable end to occur. The three factors (perception of authority, entry into the Authority System, the Overarching Ideology) are necessary in shifting into the agentic state. Once the participants are in this state of altered personality, two main consequences arise which cause the former ordinary people to transform into evil servants. One of the consequences is the process of tuning, when the subject has â€Å"maximal receptivity to the emissions of the authority, whereas the learner’s signals are muted and psychologically remote† (Milgram 144). Milgram states that learners are viewed as simple obstacles rather than human beings that need to be overcome in order for the authoritarian relationship of experimenter-learner to be satisfied. In addition, authority is perceived as an impersonal force and the experimenter as a suprahuman character, having powers above and beyond a normal person. Orders given exclusively by the authoritarian figure will be followed whether they promote immoral and unethical actions and severe negative results ensue. The other main consequence is the loss of responsibility and is characterized as the most far-reaching one in the agentic state. â€Å"A man feels responsible to the authority directing him but feels no responsibility for the content of the actions that the authority prescribes† (Milgram 145). The people believe they have an obligation towards the authoritarian figure and their accountability depends on how well they have performed the actions called for by the authority. The heinous nature of the actions ordered are not taken into consideration simply because â€Å"they see them as originating in the motives of some other person† (Milgram 146). Also, because they are not in the autonomous state, the superego cannot control their actions and the inhibitory forces are not capable of examining whether the orders given compromise their moral values and principles. Hence, the people end up being blindly obedient and they adopt a different personality which forces them to do terrible actions with even more harsh results. According to Zimbardo, the experts predicted that most subjects would not give strong electric shocks when orders to do so. They forecasted that on average â€Å"less than 1 percent would go all the way to the end, that only sadists would engage in such sadistic behavior, and that most people would drop out at the tenth level of 150 volts† (271). However, the shocking truth was that â€Å"two of every three (65 percent) of the participants went all the way up to the maximum shock level of 450 volts† (271). The key factor that made the participants obey and continue even after the point where the victim-learner was not responding was the experimenter’s reassurance that he will take the responsibility of their action. A characteristic example is a teacher’s report which states the initial refusal: â€Å"I didn’t know what the hell was going on †¦ I was not taking responsibility for going further. That’s it.† (271). Although, the los s of personal responsibility is one reason for continuing, Zimbardo suggests another reason. He highlights that the participants did not know how to exit the experiment. â€Å"It is a simple matter of up and then out.† (272). The results of the experiment reveal exactly what the purpose of the paper was; to prove that it is not the sadists or the psychopaths who conduct the most unethical, immoral and cruel actions but the ordinary people. The normal people are the ones who, under specific situations and by the influence of an authoritarian figure, will blindly follow orders. A real-life example of every-day men becoming evil and being indoctrinated into extraordinary killing occurred during the 2nd world war. It was the actions of Reserve Battalion 101, a unit of the German Order Police, consisting of approximately 500 men from Hamburg, which played a crucial role in the extermination of Jews in Poland and the implementation of Hitler’s Final Solution. According to Browning, the members of the Unit were middle-aged ordinary men, neither sadists nor Nazi fanatics. However, despite the option they were given from their commander not to participate in the Unit’s actions, 90 percent of the men didn’t refuse and took part in the shootings. The Unit’s inhumane and unethical achievement was the death of at least 83,000 Jews (142). Browning’s conclusion is similar to the one given by Milgram in the teachers and learners experiment. The members of the Battalion were as normal as the participants in Milgram’s experiment, a nd the reason for the unrealistic killing lies in their blind obedience to the authoritarian figure. Browning suggests that ordinary people will tend to obey and follow orders given from above, even though the orders might come into conflict with their personal judgment and values. The explanation for this statement was given by Milgram: specifically, in both cases the people were placed in a hierarchically organized structure; therefore, people’s ethical boundaries didn’t apply to the orders given from authority. People lost their personal identity related to the orders given: their inhibitory forces were no longer able to inspect whether the orders were within their ethical limits. As a result, both participants of the experiment and members of the Battalion ended in conducting actions they wouldn’t have done otherwise. Last but not least, one of the most vital historical examples that clearly illustrates that the ones who tend to blindly follow orders given from authority are ordinary people, is the case of Adolf Eichmann. Despite Eichmann’s cruel actions of arranging the execution of millions of Jews, he was completely normal without any trace of abnormal behavior: â€Å"Half a dozen psychiatrists had certified him as â€Å"normal† –â€Å"More normal at any rate †¦ â€Å"not only normal but most desirable† (Arendt 25–26). Arendt’s concluded that â€Å"the trouble with Eichmann was precisely that so many were like him, and that many were neither perverted nor sadistic, that they were †¦ terribly and terrifyingly normal.† She states that this â€Å"new type of criminal †¦ commits his crimes under the circumstances that make it well-nigh impossible for him to know or feel that he is doing wrong† (276). â€Å"It was as though in those last minutes [of Eichman’s life] he was summing up the lesson that this long course in human wickedness had taught us–the lesson of the fearsome, word-and-thought defying banality of evil† (252) . Hannah Arendt, through her detailed analysis of the war crimes trial of Eichmann, was the first to present the fundamental phrase â€Å"Banality of evil.† She showed that â€Å"social forces can prompt normal people to perform horrific acts† (Zimbardo 289). The experimental and real-life examples that were examined in the paper suggest that the key factor for ordinary people to blindly obey an authoritarian figure is their entry into a hierarchically organized structure, and the loss of their individuality. By entering in such well-structured system, people turn evil and they conclude horrible actions they wouldn’t have done if they weren’t part of it. Therefore, it may be possible that the conclusion drawn from these examples could be applied in today’s highly coordinated world. The modern militaries, the business, political and governmental organizations are also hierarchically structured. This may indicate that nowadays people within these organizations can still be transformed into modern evil servants who will serve and obey the interests of the most powerful people. However, it might also be plausible that due to the more liberalized world we live in, people instead of obeying they could actively resist the or ders given from above or they may even act in an aggressive and violent way against authority. Obedience to authority will always be a theme available for further research and with more than one possible explanations of why people obey and follow orders.

Cystic Fibrosis :: essays research papers

Cystic Fibrosis   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Cystic Fibrosis, is a genetic disorder of the exocrine glands, affecting children and young people; median survival is 25 years in females and 30 years in males. It is caused by a genetic abnormality in the CF transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR) gene that results in the disruption of chloride transfer across cell membranes. As a consequence, chloride ions build up in the cells of the lungs and other organs. Water stays inside the cells to dilute the chloride rather than being drawn out of the cells by normal chloride movement and the normal secretions of the organs thicken. Mucus in the exocrine glands becomes thick and sticky and eventually blocks the ducts of these glands (especially in the pancreas, lungs, and liver), forming cysts. The disease also causes the sweat glands to secrete excessive salt, causing heat prostration in hot weather. Symptoms, which vary according to the severity of the condition and the glands involved, include a distended abdomen ; diarrhea; bulky, foul-smelling stools; and malnutrition. Medical problems include nasal polyps and sinus disease, repeated respiratory infections, infertility, liver disease, and diabetes. Diagnosis is confirmed by a sweat test or measurement of transmembrane potential. Treatment consists of dietary adjustment (low fat—high calorie) and the administration of vitamins, pancreatin, and antibiotics to ward off secondary infections. Special measures are necessary to decrease the viscosity of pulmonary secretions; aerosol application of recombinant human DNA, an enzyme that digests the sticky extra cellular DNA that helps form these viscous secretions, was approved in 1993. In some cases lung transplantation is helpful. The identification of the abnormal gene (1989) paved the way for gene therapy aimed at altering the genetic structure by transferring to the patient cells with normal CFTR genes.

Pro Assisted Suicide Essay -- Death With Dignity euthanasia

Death With Dignity Today, American society is obsessed with the young and successful and their endless pursuit of beauty, fame, and fortune. People are bombarded with images of youth in movies, music, and ads for ordinary items such as toothpaste. Advertisers create the illusion that people can forever defer death by plastering ?anti-aging? across drugstore aisles to sell their products. In the search for eternal youth, people become desensitized to the importance of life?s inevitable end. Every day, countless people quietly pass away after long and painful struggles with terminal illnesses, and their loved ones are often reduced to helpless observers. Terminally ill patients are not merely a statistic; they are mothers, fathers, children, friends, and lovers who leave behind many distraught loved ones in death. By continuing to prohibit assisted suicide, the law denies many terminally ill patients the peaceful death they desire. Instead, patients must waste away slowly and endure constant pain, unless they have powerful and expensive medications to dull their senses. However, no amount of medication can remedy emotional pain, and patients sometime feel helpless and alone because death is their only release from suffering (Girsh 3). The law cannot rightfully ignore the special circumstances of terminal illnesses and deny people a dignified death simply because they retain brain function. Terminally ill patients need an option to prevent spending their final days, months, or years painfully deteriorating as they approach their inevitable deaths. Throughout the controversy, the public has focused on moral aspects of assisted suicide and overlooked the fact that one form has already been in practice for nine ye... ...situation of terminally ill patients over their personal convictions and abolish the boundaries keeping them from having a peaceful end to their lives. Works Cited ?2-to-1 Majorities Continue to Support Rights to Both Euthanasia and Doctor-Assisted Suicide.? The Harris Poll 9 January 2002 Death with Dignity National Center. 2006. 27 March 2006 . Girsh, Faye. ?Patients Should Be Given More Control Over Their Deaths.? USA Today March 2000. Levinson, Sanford. ?Assisted Suicide Should be Legalized.? The Nation 21 July 1997. Oregon Department of Human Services Report, 1994-1005. Oregon Department of Human Services. 2006. 27 March 2006 ?Physician Assisted Suicide: Legislative Statute.? Oregon Department of Human Services. 2006. 21 March 2006 . Pro Assisted Suicide Essay -- Death With Dignity euthanasia Death With Dignity Today, American society is obsessed with the young and successful and their endless pursuit of beauty, fame, and fortune. People are bombarded with images of youth in movies, music, and ads for ordinary items such as toothpaste. Advertisers create the illusion that people can forever defer death by plastering ?anti-aging? across drugstore aisles to sell their products. In the search for eternal youth, people become desensitized to the importance of life?s inevitable end. Every day, countless people quietly pass away after long and painful struggles with terminal illnesses, and their loved ones are often reduced to helpless observers. Terminally ill patients are not merely a statistic; they are mothers, fathers, children, friends, and lovers who leave behind many distraught loved ones in death. By continuing to prohibit assisted suicide, the law denies many terminally ill patients the peaceful death they desire. Instead, patients must waste away slowly and endure constant pain, unless they have powerful and expensive medications to dull their senses. However, no amount of medication can remedy emotional pain, and patients sometime feel helpless and alone because death is their only release from suffering (Girsh 3). The law cannot rightfully ignore the special circumstances of terminal illnesses and deny people a dignified death simply because they retain brain function. Terminally ill patients need an option to prevent spending their final days, months, or years painfully deteriorating as they approach their inevitable deaths. Throughout the controversy, the public has focused on moral aspects of assisted suicide and overlooked the fact that one form has already been in practice for nine ye... ...situation of terminally ill patients over their personal convictions and abolish the boundaries keeping them from having a peaceful end to their lives. Works Cited ?2-to-1 Majorities Continue to Support Rights to Both Euthanasia and Doctor-Assisted Suicide.? The Harris Poll 9 January 2002 Death with Dignity National Center. 2006. 27 March 2006 . Girsh, Faye. ?Patients Should Be Given More Control Over Their Deaths.? USA Today March 2000. Levinson, Sanford. ?Assisted Suicide Should be Legalized.? The Nation 21 July 1997. Oregon Department of Human Services Report, 1994-1005. Oregon Department of Human Services. 2006. 27 March 2006 ?Physician Assisted Suicide: Legislative Statute.? Oregon Department of Human Services. 2006. 21 March 2006 .

Midterm part 1

Prior to the sixteenth century, racism – in the modern sense of that term – was practically unknown. Oppression and slavery had existed, of course, but before the beginning of the African slave-trade, these had never been based on skin color. Racism, like all forms of oppression, is ultimately rooted in a capitalistic economic system that relies on heavy-handed control and oppressive authority in order to maintain itself and concentrate the greatest amount of wealth into as few hands as possible. When there â€Å"legal† controls and sheer force begin to fail, it becomes necessary for the â€Å"ruling class† to create a mythology.   In early Virginia, this mythology took the form of what was essentially a â€Å"divide and conquer† strategy. Those Englishmen who came to the Chesapeake region of their own volition in the early 17th century fell into one of two categories; landless gentry, generally the younger sons of aristocrats – and landless peasants who came as indentured servants in hopes of receiving land of their own land once the term of their service contract had expired.   The Portuguese had started the African slave trade over a century earlier. The English had made attempts to enslave the local native Indians, but as the Indians were masters at surviving in their home environment, it was nearly impossible to keep them as slaves. Africans, uprooted and separated from their culture and isolated in a foreign environment seemed an ideal solution (Zinn, 25-27). While Eric Fone argues that white Englishmen in Jamestown and the Chesapeake area had varying degrees of â€Å"liberty,† the fact is that true liberty depended on the ownership of land. In Fone’s â€Å"spectrum,† the freest people were those who of course owned their own land. Indentures were somewhere in the middle of this scale, enjoying a â€Å"partial† freedom. This may have been true, depending on your definition. An indenture agreed to become a virtual â€Å"slave† for a term of seven years – which is what indentured servitude entailed – a peasant could get passage to North America and a land grant of fifty acres once their period of servitude was completed. However in practice, this rarely happened; indentured servitude was so harsh that many died before the terms of their contract was over (Fone). Others ran off to join local Indians (the reverse, significantly, was never true), or gave up their claim to land in exchange for a shorter term. Despite underlying racism on the part of some English gentry (mostly stemming from cultural associations with the color black), the nature of slavery at that time was different from it was later to become. African slaves during the early history of the colony had many legal rights similar to those of indentured servants. The line between indentured servitude and slaver could often become blurred. There was no real reason to separate black and white during the first seventy years or so, nor deny blacks the status that was extended to any other worker. In fact, Africans slaves and English indentures did the same work, often side-by-side. There is documented evidence of fraternization, socializing and even sexual relations across racial lines (Zinn, 31-32) By the time the Virginia colony was viable and indentured servants lived long enough to complete their terms, arable land had become unavailable, due to the increasing number of landless gentry who had managed to acquire large estates – often illegally. This led to serious tensions between the growing numbers of indentures who were unable to claim the land to which the law (in theory) entitled them, and the large estate owners who controlled the best acreage. Eventually, there was an uprising by the landless working class against the landed gentry. After â€Å"Bacon’s Rebellion,† the ruling class, began to understand the precariousness of their position.   One problem was the possibility of further uprisings among disenfranchised Englishmen. The other was that of a slave uprising. The worst case scenario was that in which white indentures and black slaves should join forces.   Since these two groups faced many of the same problems, this was a real possibility. The answer was to pursue a strategy of â€Å"divide and conquer.†   Beginning in the 1660’s, a number of increasingly oppressive â€Å"slave codes† were legislated.   Eventually, this turned Africans into something less than human from a legal standpoint. Masters could literally beat a slave to death without legal repercussions; a slave could be dismembered as a form of punishment; manumission was made far more difficult. Most significantly, a 1670 law specified that African servants were slaves for life, and children born to slave women were automatically slaves as well. Next, the gentry began extending privileges to the landless working class, giving them a greater stake in Virginia society. The vote was extended to more white Protestant males than before, and the House of Burgesses – which represented the lower classes – was granted more power. Further action was taken to make western lands available to settlement. The result was that these token privileges reinforced an idea among poor and working class whites that they were somehow â€Å"better† than the Africans. The irony lies in the fact that if Africans had never been imported to Virginia, indentured white servitude would certainly have become institutionalized. The Virginia colony – and perhaps all of America – may very well have become the feudal society wished for by today’s trans-national corporate capitalists and their neo-conservative lap dogs in the current U.S. Administration and Congress. Works Cited Foner, Eric. Give Me Liberty! An American History.   New York: W.W. Norton,   2006. Zinn, Howard. A People’s History of The United States (3rd ed.) New York: Harper Collins, 2003.