Saturday, September 7, 2019
Success of Henry VII in strengthening the financial position of the Crown Essay Example for Free
Success of Henry VII in strengthening the financial position of the Crown Essay Crown lands were the kings estates. There were many ways in which Henry increased the yield of his crown lands. * Henry gained a lot of land from the Battle of Bosworth by naming himself king before the day of the battle therefore making all his opponents traitors and had the right to attain them all. * He gained a lot of land partly by good fortune from York and Lancaster. * Henry was not as generous as pass kings e.g. Edward IV, and kept most of his lands to himself but with the exception with some people like his mother, his uncle Jasper. * Used escheats, which were a right for the king to have lands passed to him when men died without heirs. * Skilful workers that helped Henry increase yield of lands e.g. Duchy of Lancaster and Sir Reginald Bray. Effectiveness of policy. Income from crown lands was increased by 30 % generally during his reign and with the help of Sir Reginald Bray the annual income of à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½650 increased 10 fold. Custom duties. Theses were levied on wool, leather, cloth and wine. It was a fee, which was needed to be paid for trading. Edward IV increased his income by increasing trade and cutting down on embezzlement at all levels. Henry did the same and followed what Edward IV did. Effectiveness of policy. The average annual receipts were à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½33,000 for the first 10 years of the reign and à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½40,000 thereafter, so there was not a great deal of raised income. Feudal dues. Feudal dues were paid be people who held land from the king in return for military service. Feudal dues included: * Wardship, in which the king took control in the estates of minors until they came an age. * Livery, the payment to recover lands out of wardship. * Marriage, right of crown to arrange marriages for unmarried heirs/heiresses. * Relief, payment made so that the crown recognised inheritance of land rather then reclaiming it to the throne. Effectiveness of policy. Initially the proceeds from wardship and marriage were small, amounting to only à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½350 in 1487, but after 1503 a special officer was appointed to supervise them and by 1507 the annual income was à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½6,000 a massive increase. Revenue through the operation of the judicial system. As monarch, Henry was head of the judicial system and was therefore entitled to its profits. Henry made the most of this by doing a number of things. * Fines: Henry was eager to exact fines rather then imprisonment or execution to increase his incomes. * Attainders: Method of punishment whereby the profits from the attained persons lands go to the crown. Effectiveness of policy. There were a lot of attainders e.g. Sir William Stanley had to payà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½9,000 and thenà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½1,000 p.a. for his treason in 1495. The highest passed was 51, total of 140, a third reversed. Parliamentary grants. Extraordinary revenue was money which came to the crow on particular occasions and therefore with no regularity. It arose from the obligation of the kings subjects to help him when the national interest was threatened. It was received, by the king requesting for the parliamentary consent. The usual type of tax levied was a national assessment. Effectiveness of policy. Parliamentary grants were less successful as they restricted Henrys freedom of action in return for money. By 1485 the taxes raised had ossified into a fixed sum of about à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½29,000. Loans and benevolences. The king could rely on loans from his richer subjects in times of emergency by request, and was almost virtually impossible to decline. Effectiveness of policy. It was effective in the way it was quite successful as Henry had only asked modest amounts of money from his subjects and had always repaid back, probably to lessen the risk of rebellion of some sort. Feudal obligations. As feudal overlord Henry could demand money from his subjects for special occasions e.g. the knighting of his eldest son, marriage of his eldest daughter. Effectiveness of policy. Anyone who earned more then à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½40 p.a. had to become a knight, along with the financial burdens that it entailed in military service. So this would have made a lot of money to add to the kings income from the financial burdens. Clerical dues and other income from the church. Convocation usually offered money when the king was requesting it from the parliament grant e.g. in 1489 when à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½25,000 was raised for the French war. Effectiveness of policy. Due to a rash of deaths amongst the bishops in the last years of the reign, Henry received over à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½6,000 per annum in this way.
Friday, September 6, 2019
The Human Population Essay Example for Free
The Human Population Essay Abstract Why is it that there are countries today experiencing economic stability and unrelenting progress while, in contrast, there countries still experiencing poverty? These are questions that can be answered when look through and compare populations of different countries. There are stages that a population goes through over time and those have major effects on what a country experiences in general. The Human Population            It’s splendid how colorful and beautiful a Monarch butterfly (Danaus Plexippus) is that no one would think that it started as a poor and humble larva called the caterpillar. Similarly, human population doesn’t just pop – out of the smoke and there is it – in its most thriving state. Just like a butterfly, human population undergoes several transformations and transitions towards its prosperity as time winds off. Even first world countries today experienced misery before. It’s just that they have already much further gone through what we call the demographic transition.            Having a sort of similarity to butterflies’ metamorphic process, demographic transition is one dramatic process of transformation that a certain human population experiences at different periods of time. What we don’t know is that population changes its â€Å"state†at different points of history. Say for example, a certain country now experiences an explosion in terms of child population. This is true for the third world countries such as Africa’s sub – Saharan countries such as Ghana and some South – East Asian countries like Laos. But that doesn’t mean that such countries would experience it forever. There would be some point in time that they would undergo transformation and leave the current state of their population. Even well developed countries experienced undergoing high population rates due to extensive CBR (Crude Birth Rate). The only thing is that history has provided them to surpass the stage earlier than other countries. Take England as an instance. England had experienced undergoing this stage as early as the 1800’s.            Just what was said earlier, a certain human population doesn’t just emerge immediately already as a thriving population. It undergoes several stages in the demographic transition.            Stage 1 of the demographic transition is generally the â€Å"struggle†. At this stage, people’s way of thinking is that they must bear many children to ensure a stronger working force in the future, that contributes to a high CBR. Also, another reason that contributes to a high CBR at this stage is the lack of birth control programs that is being implemented. This is true for the western countries during the industrial revolution although there are still some countries under this stage up to this day. Along with the high CBR is also a high CDR (Crude Death Rate) in the population. Failure to prevent epidemics and diseases due to lack of sanitation and medicine is one factor that contributes to a high CDR.            The next stage of the demographic transition is when the population is rapidly growing at an alarming rate. There is a high rate of children getting born over time but the death rate doesn’t grow. In some countries which are at this stage provides insufficient birth control programs but is providing adequate health care programs. Creating an unequal trend between the CBR and the CDR. More children in the population means that there is a large number in the population that must be provided with needs that accounts to more expenses that must be satisfied by the population. This results to an extensive use of resources that leads to environmental destruction like far-reaching logging and illegal quarrying. This in turn leads to poverty which is true in certain developing countries such as the third world countries. In order to get through, just like what the stable countries have done, the government must find ways to solve such problems. Providing jobs, better health care and sanitation programs and education can help on alleviating the crisis.            During the third stage of the transition, there is already an apparent stability of the CBR and CDR. The countries at this stage can already provide for much better birth control programs although there is still a slight increase of birth rate. China, South Korea and Cuba are examples of countries undergoing this stage.            The last stage is during the time a certain country has already attained economic stability. Some Europeans are had already reached this stage of Demographic transition. The labor force in these countries is massive that creates a large income flow, that’s why the country is undoubtedly able provide effective health programs, birth control programs and other courses that would take care of its population and maintain it.            One distinguishing characteristic of countries at this stage is that it has a mature population. Meaning to say that a large percentage making up the population is people aging from 60 years old and above or what we call the senior citizens. Gradually, aging countries, that’s how we should call them, experiences economic turn down. The reason for this is that the aging population grows that result to the dropping of the working population. And also, contributing to the population’s economic crisis is that the government tends to allocate a large part of the country’s budget for old age people’s care and services.            And also, a large part of countries in the fourth stage of demographic transition are immigrants.            So when we see a population in such a state, it doesn’t mean forever. Before being a butterfly, it must be a caterpillar at first. References About.com (2007). Demographic Transition. Retrieved October 22, 2007, from http://geography.about.com/od/culturalgeography/a/demotransition.htm Institute For Futures Studies (October 2000). Four Phases in the Demographic Transition. Retrieved October 22, 2007, from http://www.framtidsstudier.se/filebank/files/ 20051201$132852$fil$u0byJpuS9KO6S443Tj6g.pdf
Thursday, September 5, 2019
Solar Radio Emissions: Investigating Reactivated Prominences
Solar Radio Emissions: Investigating Reactivated Prominences Madeleine Eve Andrew Johnston Solar Radio Emissions in Investigating Reactivated Prominences Literature Review Abstract Astronomical objects that have a changing magnetic field can produce radio waves, which are the longest waves in the electromagnetic spectrum. By studying the radio waves emitted by the Sun, astronomers can acquire information about its composition, structure and motion. This aim of the present project is to use solar radio emissions produced during the re-activation of prominences in order to investigate possible energy sources for the activation. The purpose of this literature review is to analyse relevant papers on the subject matter that will be covered in this project, and give a summary of the literature in the field, whilst covering the history and importance of the topic, along with what types of instruments can be used to measure radio waves, and how radio waves are useful in studying prominences and their reactivation. 1 Introduction Radio waves are a type of electromagnetic radiation, which is a form of energy produced whenever charged particles are accelerated. They have frequencies from 3kHz to 300GHz, with corresponding wavelengths ranging from just 1mm to 100km. The understanding of solar radio emissions began in 1942, when an English physicist and radio astronomer, James Hey, was tasked to work on radar anti-jamming methods for the military. He had several reports of severe noise jamming of radars signals in the 4-8 meter wavelength range, and after examination, he realised that the direction of maximum interference was coming from the Sun, and concluded that the Sun radiates radio waves (M. Pick, 2008). The observation of solar radio emissions has proved to be a useful tool in our efforts to understand solar physics., In particular solar radio emissions can be used to study local plasma density and magnetic reconnection, which relates to the release, over periods of a few minutes, of magnetic energy stored in the corona and which accompany solar eruption events like prominences which this project will be focusing on. In addition, radio wave emissions from solar flares offer several unique diagnostic tools which can be used to investigate energy release (A. O. Benz; 2005), plasma heating, particle acceleration, and particle transport in magnetized plasmas. A Solar flare is an observed sudden flash of brightness over the Sun’s surface or the solar limb, powered by magnetic reconnection. Scientists study the Sun through radio emissions and other electromagnetic emissions and this has an additional advantage in that it provides a better understanding other stars, and the important processes they have to offer, such as nuclear fusion, which is a potential alternative energy source scientists have been trying to recreate on Earth for decades. The study of prominences and other eruptive events is important for providing an insight into the mechanics of the interior of the Sun, and also to assist us in the prediction of ‘space weather,’ which can effect satellites, and the Earth’s atmosphere and magnetic field. A solar prominence is a large, bright, gaseous feature that is anchored to the surface of the Sun in the photosphere, and extends outwards into the Sun’s corona in a loop shape. Solar prominences are made from plasma that is roughly 100 times cooler and denser than the plasma in the corona and so, when viewed with the sun as a backdrop, they appear dark, and are referred to as ‘filaments.’ They can last for several months, and are held in place above the Suns surface by strong magnetic fields. The exact composition of prominences is currently unknown, but it has been proposed that they are made up of roughly 10% helium and 90% hydrogen. Solar prominences, like other erupting projectiles, are useful to observe as they are good indicators of the magnetic field pattern of the sun, since they lie above the magnetic neutral lines. There are two basic types of prominences: quiescent and active-region prominences. Quiescent prominences are typically larger than active-region prominences, and also extend further into the corona, often reaching up to and over 30 000 kilometres above the Sun’s corona (T. E. Berger, 2012). In addition, quiescent prominences have a magnetic field of roughly 0.5-1mT, allowing them to extend further from the surface of the Sun than active-region prominences, which are much smaller, have much larger magnetic fields of around 2 – 20mT, and mostly do not travel over 30 000km. This project will largely be focusing on Quiescent prominences, as, extending further away from the Sun, they are easier to study using radio waves. Prominences are always projected from filament channels, which are along polarity inversion lines; where the magnetic field is highly non-potential (J. Chaf, 2005). These channels are the source of all major solar eruptions, such as coronal mass ejections and flares. The temperature of a prominence that hasn’t erupted, is typically , and these often appear as a long horizontal sheet of plasma. Several different models have been proposed in order to explain how cool, dense objects like prominences can be supported and thermally isolated from the surrounding hot coronal plasma. It is generally accepted that these models can generally be placed into one of two main categories: dip models, and flux rope models (for example: D. H. Mackay, 2010, D. J. Schmit, 2013, P. F. Chen; 2008). The main similarity between dip models and flux rope models is the suggested existence of concave-upward directed magnetic fields to support the prominence plasma against the downward gravitational force. Following this mechanism, it can be assumed that the plasma in a prominence is frozen to the magnetic field lines. Prominence plasma, however, is actually only partially ionised, and so it is not entirely clear how the non-ionized portion of plasma is supported, and how rapidly the neutral material might drain across the magnetic field lines. Scientists are still researching how and why prominences are formed, and the cause for their reactivation. The models proposing how prominences are supported are vital in understanding their formation and reactivation. 2 Radio Emissions with Prominences Measurable coherent radio emissions occur during flares, and are intermittent and in bursts, driven by the magnetic reconnection process, giving them the term ‘radio burst.’ Previous experiments (J. P. Raulin; 2005, J. P. wild; 1956, R. F. Wilson; 1989, G. Swarup; 1959) in measuring radio emissions produced from prominences have found that Type I bursts are predominantly emitted, Type I being characterised by their long lifespan lasting from hours to days, having a frequency of 80-200mHz with corresponding wavelengths of roughly 2m, and being produced by electrons with a charge of several keV within coronal loops. Moving Type IV radio bursts are also associated with prominence eruptions, these last from half an hour to 2 hours, with a frequency of 20-400MHz, and a corresponding wavelength range of 1 to several meters. As mentioned in the introduction, scientists can use radio waves to gain an insight into how plasmas behave during the prominence eruption process. This can be done through magnetohydrodynamics (MHD), which is the study of the dynamics of electrically conducting fluids. Scientists have previously used MHD equations in investigations to understand the formation and reactivation of prominences (J. A. Linker; 2001, D.J. Schmit;2013, G. P. Zhou;2006, A. K. Srivastava; 2013). An investigation using SDO/AIA (T. E. Berger; 2012) on the formation of prominences produced a series of images that showed the reactivation of a prominence. The sequence showed that after a prominence has completed its eruptive cycle, it slowly disappears due to drainage and the lateral transport of plasma, and a bright emission cloud forms in the upper regions of the coronal cavity. The cloud descends towards the lower region of the cavity while successively becoming brighter, and a new prominence then forms, rapidly growing in both the vertical and horizontal dimensions. The new prominence is the reactivated old prominence. The coronal cavity core in the image then grows darker as the reactivated prominence continues to grow. The reactivated prominence reaches its maximum size after a number of hours, and the emission cloud in the cavity reduces correspondingly. Using the time sequence of images from this T. E. Bergers paper, an idea of what to search for in data to find reactivat ed prominences can be formed. Work has been performed (by C. Chifor; 2006; D. H. Mackay; 2010, D. J. Schmit, 2013) which also investigates how prominences are formed, concluding that reconnection events trigger different phases in prominence eruption. The flux rope model discussed earlier has been found to be a good model in several investigations (S. E. Gibson; 2006, P. F. Chen; 2008, G. P. Zhou, 2006). Helical field lines provide a support for the mass of the prominence, and are capable of storing the magnetic energy needed to propel the prominence. A coronal flux rope can be interpreted as a magnetic structure which consists of field lines that intricately twist around each other a number of times between the two ends that are anchored to the photosphere. Studies mentioned earlier involving MHD have been found to support the flux rope model, making the model a good investigation point for the project. Further research has been carried out into the cause of reactivated prominences (R. F. Wilson; 1989), producing evidence that suggests that as the initial prominence dissipates, a ‘feed-back’ mechanism occurs, during which interactions of the large scale loops trigger burst activity in lower lying loops. 3 Instruments There are two main types of instruments that can be used to observe objects in the radio wave portion of the electromagnetic spectrum, the type selected for use depending on the strength of the signal and the amount of detail needed. The first type of instrument comprises radio telescopes, which are a form of directional radio antenna. As the range of frequencies in the radio wave portion of the electromagnetic spectrum is very large, there are a variety of different antennae that are used in radio telescopes, differing in their size, design and configuration. When measuring wavelengths of 30-3 meters, the radio telescopes use either directional antenna arrays, or large stationary reflectors with moveable focal points. At shorter wavelengths dish style radio telescopes are more largely used. The second type of instrument comprises radio interferometers, which are made up of arrays of telescopes or mirror segments. The main benefit of using a radio interferometer is that the angular resolution is similar to that of a radio telescope with a large aperture, however, radio interferometers do not collect as many photons as radio telescopes, and they cannot detect objects that are too weak. However, an array of telescopes will provide very good resolution as a result of aperture synthesis. Aperture synthesis is an imaging process that mixes signals from the array of telescopes to produce images with an angular resolution equivalent to that of a single instrument with a diameter equal to the overall size of the array of telescopes. This makes it easy to obtain high resolution images of the Sun. SDO/AIA EUV Several different types of data that can be used to review the radio emissions of the Sun in order to extract information on prominences have been researched. The first is SDO/AIA EUV data; SDO being the Solar Dynamics Observatory, which is a NASA mission that has been observing the Sun since 2010. The goal of the SDO is to understand the influence of the sun on the Earth and close space by studying the solar atmosphere over time and space in many wavelengths at the same time. Currently, investigations are focused on how the Suns magnetic field is generated and structured, and how the stored magnetic energy is converted and released into the heliosphere and geospace in the form of solar wind, energetic particles, and variations in solar radiance, which is the measure of the power per unit area on the Earth’s surface. The SDO uses the Atmosphere Imaging Assembley (AIA), an instrument which provides continuous full-observations of the solar chromosphere and corona in seven extreme ultraviolet channels. The AIA is comprised of four telescopes providing individual light feeds to the instrument. The Extreme Ultraviolet Experiment (EUV) is the instrument that measures the Sun’s extreme ultraviolet irradiance, and incorporates physics based models in order to further understand the relationship between EUV variations and magnetic variation changes in the Sun (N. Labrosse, 2011). Fig 1. This image is an example of SDO/AIA data, taken from (T. E. Berger; 2012) from a time sequence which investigates the radio emissions from the Sun leading up to the reactivation of a prominence event. Using the data produced by the two, an image can be created of the Sun that combines physical processes such as prominences, with information on the magnetic field at the time. An example is shown in ‘Fig 1’ above, which shows a reactivated prominence eruption and its corresponding radio emission in the form of a cross-sectional image of the surface of the Sun. Data collected from the AIA has been made public through online databases, providing a ready set of images and films that can be analysed in order to observe prominences and their reactivation for this project. NoRH The second type of data that will be focused on in order to infer radio emissions from the Sun is Nobeyama Radioheliograph data. The Nobeyama Radioheliograph is an array of 84 antennas dedicated for solar observation at the Nobeyama Radio Observatory, located in the Japanese Alps, and was constructed with the purpose of observing the Sun, using non-thermal emissions in particular. The Nobeyama Radioheliograph is a radio interferometer, and the original data comprises sets of correlation values of all the combination of antennas. The antennas correspond to the spatial Fourier components of the brightness distribution of the solar disk. The Nobeyama Radioheliograph is particularly useful in studying prominences (M. Shimojo, 2005), as due to its large daily observation window, combined with the low time resolution of 1 second, and a spatial resolution of roughly 13†, it can produce highly dynamic images. Even though the NoRH is ground based, the consequences of the surrounding weather conditions are minimal compared to that of other ground based observations, and observations can take place even in turbulent unclear weather. NoRH has also developed an automatic detection method, the most important factor in using the instrument to detect prominences, as data will be recorded automatically when there is an eruptive projectile. However, due to the limited time resolution and the field of view, NoRH cannot detect vary fast or very slow eruptive events, simultaneous events, and events where the structure has a weak brightness. Fig 2 This is an image taken by the NoRH (M. Shimojo) which is an example of a prominence eruption, recorded by the automatic limb detection method. The panels are negative images, so the dark region indicates the high temperature. NoRH uses the radio interferometer to create images of the Sun such as in ‘Fig 2,’ which is an example of use of the automatic limb detection method to record images of prominence eruption. Data recorded from the NoRH automatic limb detector has also been made public through online databases, giving a further set of images that can be analysed in order to extract information on prominences and their reactivation. 4 Conclusion The topics covered in the papers that were researched lead to an adequate proposal of how to investigate the reactivation of prominences. Using NoRH and AIA data from SDO, the radio bursts emitted during the collapse and reformation of a prominence, an idea of what causes the reformation can be found. The investigation will centre on the different models, primarily the magnetic flux rope model, and the magnetohydrodynamics behind them that have been proposed for the formation of prominences, and how these models could support the ‘feed-back’ theory. 5 References J. P. Wild, H. Zirin. On the Association of Solar Radio Emission and Solar Prominences (1956) 320, 322, 323 G. Swarup, P. H. Stone, A. Maxwell. The Association of Solar Radio Bursts With Flares and Prominences. Radio Astronomy Station of Harvard College Observatory (1959) 725,726 R. F. Wilson, K. R. Lang. Impulsive Microwave Burst amd Solar Noise Storm Emission Resolved with the VLA. Department of Physics and Astronomy (1989) 856, 864, 866 J. A. Linker, R. Lionello, Z. Mikic. Magnetohydrodynamic Modeling of Prominence Formation with a Helmet Streamer. Science Applications International, California (2001) A. O. Benz, H. Perret, P. Saint-Hilaire, P. Zlobec. Extended Decimeter Radio Emission After Large Solar Flares. Institute of Astronomy, Switzerland (2005) 954, 955 J. Chaf, Y. Moon, Y. Park. The Magnetic Structure of Filament Barbs. (2005) 574-578 J. P. Raulin, A. A. Pacini. Solar Radio Emissions. Universidade Presbiteria Mackenzie (2005) 741-745 M. Shimoji, T. Yokoyama, A.Asai, H. Nakajima, K. Shibasaki. One Solar-Cycle Observations of Prominence Activities Using the Nobeyama Radioheliograph 1992-2004. University of Tokyo, School of Science (2005) 85, 86 S. E. Gibson, Y. Fan. Coronal Prominence Structure and Dynamics: A Magnetic Flux Rope Interpretation (2006) 1-5 G. P. Zhou, J. X. Wang, J. Zhang. Two Successive Coronal Mass Ejections Drivin by the Kink and Drainage Instabilities of an Eruptive Prominence (2006) 1244 C. Chifor, H. E. Mason, D. Tripathi, H. Isobe, A. Asai. The Early Phases of a Solar Prominence Eruption and Associated Flare: a Multi-Wavelength Analysis. Department of Applied Mathematics and Theoretical Physics, Centre for Mathematical Sciences (2006) 966-968 P. F. Chen, D. E. Innes, S. K. Solanki, SOHO/SUMER Observations of Prominence Oscillations Before Eruption. Department of Astronomy, Nanjing University (2008) 4,5 M. Pick, N. Vilmer. Sixty-five years of Solar Radioastronomy: Flares, Coronal Mass Ejections and Sun-Earth Connection. Astron Astrophys Rev (2008) 6,7 D.H. Mackay, J.T. Karpen, J.L. Ballester, B. Schmieder, G. Aulanier. Physics of Solar Prominences: II – Magnetic Structure and Dynamics. Springer Science and Business Media (2010) 335-338 N. Labrosse, K. McGlinchey. Plasma Diagnostics in Eruptive Prominences from SDO/AIA Observations at 304 A. University of Glasgow (2011) 2-4 T. E. Berger, W. Liu, B. C. Low, SDO/AIA Detection of Solar Prominence Formation Within a Coronal Cavity. National Solar Observatory (2012) 1-4 D. J. Schmit, S. Gibson, M. Luna, J. Karpen, D. Innes. Prominence Mass Supply and the Cavity. Max Planck Institute for Solar System Research (2013) 1-5 A. K. Srivastava, B. N. Dwivedi, M. Kumar. Observations of Intensity Oscillaations in a Prominence-Like Cool Loop System as Observed by SDO/AIA: Evidence of Multiple Harmonics of Fast Magnetoacousic Waves (2013) 31
Wednesday, September 4, 2019
THE SELLING OF ORGANS: RIGHT OR WRONG :: Ethical Issues, Human Organs
I Introduction All humans have organs. The organ is very important to the humans because without organ humans will not be able to live well. At present, there are many actions that are done by irresponsible people to sell organs. Organ sales cases occur when a person sells or transfers an organ from one body to another body for the purpose of replacing the recipient’s damaged organ. There are thousands of people dying to buy a kidney, and thousands of people dying to sell a kidney because of the lack of organs availability. Lives should not be wasted, they should be saved. Indirectly, there are many reasons why they sell the organs, where the organs mostly sold to and consequences of selling human organs. II Body A Most of the countries have organ selling issues from poor people to rich people and from less powerful people to the most powerful people. 1 The country that sell the most number of organs is India and has become one of the largest country for human organs selling and transplants in the world. a Poor people in India usually sell their organs while they are still alive (Scheper-Hughes, 1998, para. 7). b India hospitals are under investigation by the government because of the illegal organ sales (Carney, 2007, para. 4). 2 People use the body for their own benefit but they cannot change the other bodies for its own interests. a People agree to sell their organs because of their benefit. i Poor families are desperate to send their son to University (Maconachy, 2007, para. 4). ii Most parents want their daughters to marry will be collecting money for a dowry to the groom and they had to sell their organs to make the exchange. B People usually sell their organs in an underground market for human organ around the world that is called blackmarket (Maconachy, 2007, para.1). 1 Most the donors came from middle class family who’s searching clients via the internet. (Maconachy, 2007, para.3). a They find the client from specific sites where most of people posted organ selling on that websites. b The meeting can arranged if the client agree to go through the procedure. c According to Kenichiro Hokamura, he was faced two choice whether to wait for the transplant or buy organ on the internet. i He buys the organ from Japanese broker in China and get the new kidney two months later(Coonan & McNell, 2006, para. 2). 2 In China, the government is trying to strike down the black market (Coonan & McNell, 2006, para.
Tuesday, September 3, 2019
Star child evolution in 2001 :: essays research papers
The Evolution of the Star-Child      Film both reflects and creates social culture. Indeed, a film indicates social trends, presents ideas, and analyzes history for its contemporary time period; thus, by viewing a film it becomes possible to infer and make judgments about a society's culture. The filmmaker's message is embedded within the plot and symbolism, and filmmakers often critique social culture through their movies. It is possible to view the evolution of culture through the progression of films over time.      Religious films in the pre-1968 era distinguish themselves as literal interpretations of the Old and New Testaments. America, in this era, held religion as central to everyday life. DeMille's â€Å"King of Kings†and similar movies that follow in form support this inference. Consider the context of DeMille's 1932 movies, â€Å"Sign of the Cross.†Depression and the great dustbowl were commonplace across America. The masses embraced religion and this is evident in the literal bible story films. Additionally, the righteous people in the films represented the working class people of America, and the blasphemers represented the elite minority. They were usually powerful, corrupt, and sometimes Jewish. American culture has evolved as technology has advanced. In 1968, the paradigm of religion in film shifted with the release of Kubrick's â€Å"2001: A Space Odyssey.†Rebellion, social activism, drugs, sex and most importantly, technology, dominated social culture. Kubrick's film challenges all previous religious film movies, yet this epic movie contains powerful symbols that reflect the changes in social thought. Thus far, evolution of movies and culture has been discussed. â€Å"2001: A Space Odyssey†is interesting because Kubrick realizes this concept of cultural evolution. Thus, he created his movie to embody this concept and manifest itself in man as a physical being. The underlying theme of Kubrick's movie is evolution: the progression of monkeys to humans, humans to machines (HAL), machines to the star-child. That â€Å"2001†concedes to evolution validates science and technology, while it detracts from religion. Thus, this slow paced film indicates the inevitable evolution of all things. The star-child, spurred by the monolith, represents the destiny of humans as they evolve with technology. The monkeys loose their innocence and become corrupted when the monolith presents itself. This is because the monolith prompts the monkeys to explore ways in which odds and ends in nature may be utilized; in other words, the monkeys develop tools. The monolith is not a deity in the sense that it is a physical creator.
Monday, September 2, 2019
Rating Othello Essay example -- Othello essays
Rating Othello      Is this Shakespearean tragedy Othello at the top of the rating chart, or is it just near the top? And why? This essay intends to examine various aspects of this subject, along with critical opinion.  This play ranks near the top. The Bard’s presentation of emotions, character, of good and evil actions that are down-to-earth – these are sometimes seen as the main reasons for the high ranking of Othello. Louis B. Wright and Virginia A. LaMar in â€Å"The Engaging Qualities of Othello†maintain that the popularity of this play has been consistent for about 400 years because  it treats emotions that are universal and persistent in human nature. Its characters do not exist on a plane far removed from ordinary life; we are not asked to witness the conflict of kings and conspirators beyond the experience of everyday people; we are not involved in the consequences of disasters on a cosmic scale; what we witness is a struggle between good and evil, the demonstration of love, tenderness, jealousy, and hate in terms that are humanly plausible. (126)  The realistic aspect of the play presents a full range of characters, a full range of emotions, a full range of motivations, a full range of actions – just as are present in real society. The down-to-earth, realistic consideration is very important to Othello’s enduring popularity.  Francis Ferguson in â€Å"Two Worldviews Echo Each Other†ranks the play Othello quite high among the Bard’s tragedies:  Othello, written in 1604, is one of the masterpieces of Shakespeare’s â€Å"tragic period.†In splendor of language, and in the sheer power of the story, it belongs with the greatest. But some of its admirers find it too savage [. . .]. (1... ...d Nothing.†Essays on Shakespeare. Ed. Gerald Chapman. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1965.  Heilman, Robert B. â€Å"The Role We Give Shakespeare.†Essays on Shakespeare. Ed. Gerald Chapman. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1965.  Levin, Harry. General Introduction. The Riverside Shakespeare. Ed. G. Blakemore Evans. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1974.  Shakespeare, William. Othello. In The Electric Shakespeare. Princeton University. 1996. http://www.eiu.edu/~multilit/studyabroad/othello/othello_all.html No line nos.  Wright, Louis B. and Virginia A. LaMar. â€Å"The Engaging Qualities of Othello.†Readings on The Tragedies. Ed. Clarice Swisher. San Diego: Greenhaven Press, 1996. Rpt. from Introduction to The Tragedy of Othello, the Moor of Venice by William Shakespeare. N. p.: Simon and Schuster, Inc., 1957.  Â
Sunday, September 1, 2019
Importance of Sex Education Essay
Abstract Sex education is an important aspect for adolescents and crucial for their development. It is crucial for youths to learn about their sexuality and be able to make better decisions about sex. The sources confirmed that the topic of sex education is a highly debated when it comes to whether or not sex education should be added to the curriculum that is taught in schools. The controversy stems from parents that oppose sex education in schools due to their religious or personal opinions. According to the CDC there has been a decline in teen pregnancy due to the efforts towards prevention of pregnancy and STDs. The United States has the highest rate of sexually transmitted diseases and teenage pregnancy among developed countries, (Carter, 2012). Studies will show that teen pregnancy, STDs, and the initiation of sex remain a risk and controversial topic in the United States and that teens is less likely to become pregnant if they receive some type of comprehensive sex education compared teens that received no sex education, (Kohler et al., 2008). Sex education is not only about giving youths the facts, it is about teaching young people knowledge they can to use to live a safe and healthier life. Importance of Sex Education The lack of adolescents sexual knowledge during an adolescent multiple developmental changes, can increase their use of self selected media, abstract thinking, or increase time spent with peers. It has been found of students in their first year at least 56 percent have experience genital fondling, (Byers et al., 2011). Adolescents’ sexuality becomes prominent and their sexual feelings and interest is heightened during their middle school years, including their opportunity for sexual exploration and sexual knowledge. A study shows that before a girl 20th birthday that three out of ten girls will at least become pregnant one time. A survey done by the Center of Disease Control in 2011 indicated that among high school students that over 47 percent of them have already had sex and at least 15 percent of students have had sex with four or more different partners, (Institute, 2014). Between 1995 and 2002 there was a major decline of about 86% in teen pregnancy rate due to the dramatic improvements in teens using contraception’s and the decreased in sexual activity.owe Providing adolescents with skill and knowledge is a human right and helps improve their sexual health, even though some suggest that sex education increases sexual activity, (Ross, 2008). Review of Literature There has been a continued debate about how sex education is taught. Controversy stems from parents that oppose sex education in schools due to their religious or personal opinions. A study that was recently done showed teens that received parental guidance from their parents about sex, STDs, and birth control was more likely to use protection than the teens that had not talked frequently about sex with their parents. Some sources dispute the fact that sex education provokes youths into having sex once schools begin teaching sex education. The topic of sex is barely discussed with parents and adolescents feel sexual topics have little importance to their parents compared to a parent perception. Communication between youth and parents can help the youths to make healthy decisions. Parents sometimes find it difficult to communicate with their youths about topics they wants to know about, including abstinence and how to prevent STDs and HIV, (Whittaker, 2009). Depending on the content, it’s harder to assess teenager’s behavior when it comes to sex education, which can lead to risky behavior among sexually experienced teenagers. Parent’s communication about sex education is delayed when it comes to sexual initiation and birth control methods. Adolescents should be educated on a wide range of sexual topics according to teachers, high school students, and parents by middle school or earlier. Sex education in home or school is important for adolescents and crucial for their development, (Martinez et al., 2010). A study on sexual health education shows that students believe that comprehensive school based sexual health education is important and has positive views than the sex education they receive from their parents. Some studies show that the comprehensive sex education provides a higher quality and is more comfortable for students to frequently ask questions, (Byers et al., 2011). There was a study conducted by the Ripple trial that shows that effectiveness of a long term evaluation about peer led sex education programs compared to the teacher led sex education programs. Out of twenty seven secondary schools randomly selected, studies shows that among students the peer led programs were more popular than the teacher led programs, (Ross, 2008). There have been little epidemiologic evaluations done on a population level that shows the effectiveness of these programs, despite a few systematic reviews, (Kohler et al., 2008). The rate of teen pregnancy in the United States is still higher than it is in Europe even though with comprehensive sex education in the states has a lower teen pregnancy rate. Data has suggested that the formal comprehensive sex education programs help reduce the risk for unplanned pregnancy without provoking youths to engage in sex. Randomized results confirm that abstinence only programs have very little effect on risky sexual behavior, (Kohler et al., 2008). Sex education is widely implemented even though that there is evidence of weakness of the effectiveness of sex education. Abortion and pregnancy have been mostly depended on studies on self reported behavioral outcomes, (Ross, 2008). According to the authors of,†Demographic differences in adolescents’ sexual attitudes and behaviors, parent communication about sex, and school sex education†, (2011) the most important demographic variables that are influencing risky sexual behaviors is the maturity levels of the adolescents. The older adolescents seem to have a promiscuous attitude about sex and receive more sexual communication proving that age is a major factor when it comes to adolescent sexual behavior. This study was to show the demographic differences and similarities that dealt with gender and age that affect adolescent sexual behaviors. The research confirms that the gender differences in adolescent sexual behavior and a heterosexual male will engage more regularly in sexual behaviors than heterosexual females. Adolescent males seem to engage in inconsistent condom use and many short-term monogamous relationships than females, (Anagurthi et al., 2011). Adolescents’ sexual behaviors and sexual behavior patterns for gender and age are clear but vary when it comes to ethnicity. Studies done by authors, (Anagurthi et al., 2011) suggests that African American adolescents have more sex at an early age than the Caucasian adolescents and have more sex partners than any other racial minority. Research done on African American college students in the United States focused on sexually transmitted diseases, sexual decision making, teen pregnancy, and sexual experiences from living in poor urban areas. Factors such as religion, parents’ involvement, and education had a part in influencing African American sexual decision making, (Barnes et al., 2010). HIV/AIDS cases among African American females show a disproportionate percentage according to the CDC in 2004. African American females w ith HIV/AIDS are sometimes treated in biased ways by society along with limited healthcare. The fact still remains that premarital sexual activities among youths are growing along with the epidemic of HIV/AIDS. Roughly every year in the United States, there are at least nine million new cases of STDs reported among young adults and teens, (Institute, 2012). A study reported by Alexandra McManus and Lipi Dhar shows that the increased rates of HIV (Human Immunodeficiency Virus) and STI’s (Sexually Transmitted Infections) was caused by the risky sexual behavior of youths and biological factors. The report showed that 32 percent of the cases of AIDS (acquired immunodeficiency syndrome) were among young people between the ages of 15-29 and twice as much among young women, (McManus et al., 2008). Alarming proportions estimated that there are about 3 percent of people living in the United States among the 35 million people living with HIV worldwide and the population that are vulnerable continue to be young adults. A study done among college students suggest for prevention against STDs and HIV/AIDS there are two important aspects, a monogamous relationship along with correct and consistent condom use, (Kanekar et al., 2010). Out of the 48 states that have the sex education policies and laws, there were studies done to determine and analyze the extent that states focus on abstinence as part of their sex education program, (Carter, 2012). The CDC officials from the Center for Disease Control states that there has been a decline of teen births due to the pregnancy prevention efforts since they began tracking in the 1940’s. Reports also show that abstinence only programs had little impact on teen pregnancy and that sixty percent of teens that received some type of comprehensive sex education would less likely to get someone pregnant or become pregnant, (Beadle, 2012). It is important for states to work toward training teachers and reducing the high rates of teen pregnancy by teaching comprehensive sex education in schools and for teens to learn safe sex practices, human reproduction, prevention of sexual transmitted diseases, unplanned pregnancies, as well the right time to learn sex education, (Stranger-Hall et al., 2011). The United States policies and laws can only provide guidelines for school boards that do decide to teach sex education and is not really required to teach STD and sex education. The states that don’t have sex education laws have some type of policy that deal with STD and HIV education, (Stranger-Hall et al., 2011). Due to the problem that researchers have gaining access to students and schools, the public will never know what is being taught in sex education in the classrooms. The insight into how policies on sex education affect students in private and public schools in the United States is due to social inequality and sex education, (Kendall, 2010). Sex education in schools can play a major developmental role towards sexual behaviors and attitudes for adolescents even though the context of the adolescents developmental comes primary from the parents. Schools can help promote safe sex and healthy sexual development for the adolescents that are already sexually active There were an increase in school performance and attachment to schools, reduce in risky sexual behaviors and sexual attitudes, and a decrease in school dropout rates due to the effectiveness of some of the school programs in a review that was done on over 60 studies. Other studies that indicated that sex education programs had no effect toward sex before marriage among adolescents or how frequent they engaged in sex. Unprepared adolescents with sexual behavior can become vulnerable to emotional problems and stress. A continue effort on sex education programs is important to help focus on which features of the programs that can effectively help reduce risky sexual beh avior, (Anagurthi et al., 2011). The family planning advocates and health educators indicated that the web would be a good and accurate source for teens that are looking for information about sexuality topics and contraception when other sensitive may be limited. The availability of the web and the use of multimedia for teenagers have led to the discussion by the author, Freya Lund Sonenstein (2012) on whether the information on the web dealing with sexual topics needs to be more accurate and complete. Providing sex education and information about contraception is prohibited in public schools in many states. The indication is that the web cannot replace life skills that schools and family can teach on sexually transmitted diseases and prevention of unplanned pregnancy, (Sonenstein, 2012). Teenagers spend less time on the internet than the older populations searching health information and visiting health information sites. In the United States qualitative data indicated that teens doesn’t trust the sexual health information on the web. The rate of teen pregnancy and sexual transmitted diseases does not decrease by sheltering adolescents from sex education but instead it increases the chance of unprotected sex. Even though the internet is capable of providing information on prevention of teen pregnancy and STDs, teenagers seems to be cautious about the sexual health information on the web and do not rely on it, (Sonenstein, 2012). Explicit sexual activities and messages can be confusing for adolescents and school-age children and can be detrimental to their well-being and health. Katherine Bowman and Lynn Rew discuss in their article Protecting Youth from Early and Abusive Sexual Experiences (2008), about the many American children that are at risk of abusive sexual experiences and how nurses can provide guidance to assist children in protecting themselves. Our nation is second in the industrialized world for sexual transmitted diseases and adolescent pregnancy that is contributed to the conflicting information about sexuality, (Bowman et al., 2008). While our American children and adolescents are being exposed to real life experiences, conflicting messages on sexual values and behavior, and sexually explicit media, many are still being prevented from receiving sex education in school. Sexual abuse in the United States among adolescents and children are experienced within the home and within the community including schools and churches. One type of sexual abuse sometimes involves children of the same age being forced to engage in sexual acts. According to Katherine Bowman and Lynn Rew (2008) sexually abused children will likely experience vulnerability to more sexual victimization during their adolescent years. Conclusion Increasing children knowledge about human sexuality can help protect adolescents and children. When children do not receive answers to questions concerning sex, they can be forced to access the internet or turn to their friends. Sex education along with parents, schools, and community health can focus on methods that can help children and adolescents avoid STDs and teen pregnancy. Because of the positions that community and public health nurses have, they are able to implement a plan through the community programs that can help protect children against the risk of sexual abuse and early sexual experiences, (Bowman et al., 2008). Programs such as youth development, curricular sex education, and HIV and puberty need to be implemented in schools. Ethnicity and gender differences should not be ignored. Adolescents are trying to find ways to understand their own sexual identities, feel good about their decision making, and becoming young adults. A lot of work needs to be done in order for the internet to be a vehicle for educating teenagers on complete and accurate information about contraceptive options. Sites with search engine problems and that are committed to helping teenagers make inform choices need to address the issues so that the teenagers that are motivated can access the sites readily when seeking health information, (Sonenstein, 2012). This issue is evident and important in helping adolescents gain knowledge on sex education. References Anagurthi, C., Hillman, S. B., Somers, C. L., & Tobey, J. (2011). Demographic differences in adolescents’ sexual attitudes and behaviors, parent communication about sex, and school sex education. Electronic Journal of Human Sexuality, 14. Retrieved from http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?id=GALE%7CA281460231&v=2.1&u=oran95108&it=r&p=AONE&sw=w&asid=678143bd137e5afbba39a883a3c8a9e6 Barnes, S. L., & Bynum, M. S. (2010). An examination of the sexual behavior of middle-class African American female college freshmen. Black Women, Gender & Families, 4(2), 1. Retrieved from http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?id=GALE%7CA343258238&v=2.1&u=oran95108&it=r&p=AONE&sw=w&asid=c4700089bcb65f86a93a140aaf9b38df Beadle, A. P. (2012, April 10). Teen Pregnancies Highest In States With Abstinence-Only Policies. Retrieved from Think Progress: http://thinkprogress.org/health/2012/04/10/461402/teen-pregnancy-sex-education/ Bowman, K., & Rew, L. (2008). Protecting youth from early and abusive sexual experienc es. Pediatric Nursing, 34(1), 19. Retrieved from Retrieved from http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?id=GALE%7CA176688930&v=2.1&u=oran95108&it=r&p=AONE&sw=w&asid=9308d7d0809765dd6fa91daca9171b5a Byers, E. S., Foster, L. R., & Sears, H. A. (2011). Middle school students’ perceptions of the quality of the sexual health education received from their parents . The Canadian Journal of Human Sexuality, 55. Retrieved from http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?id=GALE%7CA276516861&v=2.1&u=oran95108&it=r&p=AONE&sw=w&asid=814f1aefc986d63381bdd5c7a8f20682 Carter, D. (2012). Comprehensive Sex Education for Teens Is More Effective than Abstinence. AJN, American Journal of Nursing: Volume 112, Issue 3, 15. Retrieved from http://journals.lww.com/ajnonline/Fulltext/2012/03000/Comprehensive_Sex_Education_for_Teens_Is_More.5.as%20%20px Institute, G. (2012, February). Facts on American Teens’ Sources of Information About Sex. Retrieved from Guttmacher Institute: http://www.guttmacher.org/pubs/FB-Teen-Sex-Ed.html Institute, G. (2014, 11 July). State Policies on S ex Education in Schools . Retrieved from NCSL: http://www.ncsl.org/research/health/state-policies-on-sex-education-in-schools.aspx Kanekar, A., & Manoj, S. (2010). Interventions for safer sex behaviors among college students. American Journal of Health Studies, 25(3), 138. Retrieved from http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?id=GALE%7CA308741511&v=2.1&u=oran95108&it=r&p=AONE&sw=w&asid=76328310c0ede21ea91f749caad3556e Kendall, N. (2010, December). Risky Lessons: Sex Education and Social Inequality. Social Forces, 89(2), 714. Retrieved from http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?id=GALE%7CA247339536&v=2.1&u=oran95108&it=r&p=AONE&sw=w&asid=bc4a9d58495b53e793bf5f8f974a117b Kohler, P. K., Manhart, L. E., & Lafferty, W. E. (2008). Abstinence-Only and Comprehensive Sex Education and the Initiation of Sexual Activity and Teen Pregnancy. Journal of Adolescent Health, Volume 42, Issue 4, 344-351. Martinez, G., Abma, J., & Copen, C. (2010). Educating Teenagers About Sex in the United States. NCHS Data Brie f, Number 44. Retrieved from http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/databriefs/db44.htm McManus, A., & Dhar, L. (2008, July 23). Study of knowledge, perception and attitude of adolescent girls towards STIs/HIV, safer sex and sex education: (A cross sectional survey of urban adolescent school girls in South Delhi, India). BMC Women’s Health, 12. Retrieved from http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?id=GALE%7CA181965652&v=2.1&u=oran95108&it=r&p=AONE&sw=w&asid=c9ca6c75bc7197b0fc0892a1e6fe5f62 Ross, D. (2008). Approaches to sex education: peer-led or teacher-led? . PLoS Medicine, 1536+ .Retrieved from: http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?id=GALE%7CA202254703&v=2.1&u=oran95108&it=r&p=AONE&sw=w&asid=e309362c426934a7a75b01743a20b9a3 Sonenstein, F. L. (2012, September 24). The internet, teenagers, and sexual health information: a cautionary tale,1. Israel Journal of Health Policy Research, 39. Retrieved from http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?id=GALE%7CA307926629&v=2.1&u=oran95108&it=r&p=AONE&sw=w&asid=fb0f9b5127ee8a729ff4c3bf5b0bb9a4 Stanger-Hall, K., & Hall, D. W. (2011). Abstinence-Only Education and Teen Pregnancy Rates: Why We Need Comprehensive Sex Education in the U.S . PlosOne. Whittaker, A. (2009, August). Parent-Child Communication: Promoting Sexually Healthy Youth . Retrieved from Advocates for Youth: Retrieved from.http://www.advocatesforyouth.org/ the-facts-parent-child-communication
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